Description
Mannosereceptortargetingbymannosylatedliposomeshasbeendemonstratedforavarietyofmannosylatedlipidconjugatesinavarietyofliposomemorphologiesandcompositionsinseveraldifferent invitro and invivo models.Averylargenumberofpublicationsisaboutusingahydrophobicderivativeofmannose(4-aminophenylalpha-D-mannopyranoside)ratherthanusingamannosylatedlipidinClodronateliposomes.Thisismainlyduetothehighcostandcomplexityofsynthesizingandconjugatingmannosetolipid.4-aminophenylalpha-D-mannopyranosideiscommerciallyavailableandfarlessexpensivethansynthesizingmannoseconjugatedlipid.
Whymannose?Mannoseisoneofthecarbohydratecomponentsofmanybacterialandviralcellsurfaces;therefore,theever-efficient,highlyredundantimmunesystemhasevolvedmultiplemechanismsforidentifyingpathogensbasedonmannoserecognition.Theanimalandplantkingdomslikewiseutilizecarbohydraterecognitionsignalingmechanismsincludingmannoseresidues.Manypublicationsevaluateothercarbohydratesastargetingmechanismsforvariouscelltypes,howevermannosetargetingtophagocytesappearstobeoneofthemorespecificmechanismsidentifiedtodate.Mammaliancellsurfaceidentificationmoleculesbasedonmannosebinding,suchastheICAMfamilyofleukocyteadhesionmolecules,targettheSIGNfamilyofmannosereceptorstoaccomplishself-recognition invivo.
Awell-knownandcitedstudybyUmezawa&Eto [1]demonstratesthatliposomescontainingaminophenylmannosideweremostefficientlyincorporatedintothemousebrainacrossthebloodbrainbarrier.TherADIolabeledliposomesbearingaminophenyl-alpha-D-mannopyranosideweremaximallyincorporatedintothemousebrainafter48hours,whereasinthespleenandliver,theseradioactivitiesweremaximumafter12hours.Thestudiesalsoshowedthatliposomesweremostincorporatedwasglialcellsratherthanneuronalcell.Thesubcellularfractionationstudyindicatesthatmannoselabeledliposomesareincorporatedintolysosomesrichfractionbothinliverandbrain.
Therearefivemannosylatedfluorescentcontrolliposomeproducts(m-Fluoroliposome®)form-Clodrosome®(mannosylatedclodronateliposomes).Allfivemannosylatedfluorescentliposomesincorporatealipophilicdyeinsidetheirmembranes.Theyareinsolubleinwater;however,theirfluorescenceiseasilydetectedwhenincorporatedintomembranes.DiI,DiO,DiD,DiRandDiAcoverawiderangeofexcitationandemissionwavelengthsfrom300sto900s.DiIandDiOhavefluorescenceexcitationandemissionmaximaseparatedbyabout65nm,facilitatingtwo-colorlabeling.TheemissionspectrumofDiAisverybroad,allowingittobedetectedasgreen,orange,orevenredfluorescencedependingontheopticalfilterused.DiI,DiO,DiDandDiRbelongtothedialkylcarbocyaninesfamilyofcompounds.Thespectralpropertiesofthedialkylcarbocyaninesarelargelyindependentofthelengthsofthealkylchainsbutareinsteaddeterminedbytheheteroatomsintheterminalringsystemsandthelengthoftheconnectingbridge.Theyhaveextremelyhighextinctioncoefficients,moderatefluorescencequantumyields,andshortexcitedstatelifetimesinlipidenvironments(~1ns).Thefluorescencespectrumofthedyeisshownbelow.
Youcanchoosethem-Fluoroliposome®basedonthetypeofthefluorescentequipmentandfiltersthatyouuseinyourlab.Mannosylatedclodronateliposomescannotbemadefluorescentsimplyduetothepotentialforinaccurateand/oruninterpretabledatabeinggeneratedbylabelledm-Clodrosome®.Formoreinformation,pleaserefertothetechnicalnotesection.
FormulationInformation
Clodrosome®LiposomalClodronateSUSPension
| LipidComposition | Concentration(mg/ml) | Concentration(mM) | MolarRatioPercentage |
|---|---|---|---|
| Total | 23mg/ml | 35.1mM | 100 |
| L-alpha-Phosphatidylcholine | 18.8 | 24.3 | 70 |
| Cholesterol | 4.2 | 10.9 | 30 |
| EncapsulatedDrug | Concentration |
|---|---|
| Clodronate((Dichloro-phosphono-methyl)phosphonate),DisodiumSalt | 18.4*mM |
| *Dependingonthetypeoftheclodronatesalt,itsconcentration(mg/ml)varies.Iftetrahydratesaltisused,theconcentrationoftheencapsulateddrugwillbe~7mg/ml,andifanon-hydratedsaltisused,theconcentrationwillbe~5mg/ml. | |
Fluoroliposome®-DiD
| LipidComposition | Concentration(mg/ml) | Concentration(mM) | MolarRatioPercentage |
|---|---|---|---|
| Total | 23mg/ml | 35.1mM | 100 |
| L-alpha-Phosphatidylcholine | 18.8 | 24.3 | 70 |
| Cholesterol | 4.2 | 10.9 | 30 |
| Mannosylation | Concentration |
|---|---|
| 4-Aminophenyl-alpha-D-mannopyranoside | 9.53mol% |
| FluorescentDye | Excitation/Emission(nm) | Concentration(mg/ml) | Concentration(mM) |
|---|---|---|---|
1,1"-Dioctadecyl-3,3,3",3"-Tetramethylindodicarbocyanine,4-ChlorobenzenesulfonateSalt(DiD) | 644/665 | 0.0625 | 0.065 |
| BufferandLiposomeSize | Specification |
|---|---|
| Buffer | PhosphateBufferedSaline |
| pH | 7.4 |
| LiposomeSize | 1.5-2µm |
TechnicalNotes
- Toreachbloodstream-accessIBLe,mannose-receptorpositivecellsoutsidetheliver,asignificantnumberofliposomeswillhavetoescapefirst-passuptakebytheliverandspleen,sothatthetargetcellsareexposedtoahigherconcentrationofmannosylatedliposomesfromtheblood.Onestrategythathasbeenusedtoensurethatliposomesescapetheliverandspleenisknownasreticuloendothelialsystem(RES)blockadeinwhichanimalsarepre-dosedwithasufficientquantityofliposomestotemporarilysaturatethephagocyticcellsoftheblood,liverandspleen,alsoknownasthereticuloendothelialsystem(RES)orthemononuclearphagocytesystem(MPS).Thissufficientquantityisdependentupontheliposometypeandcompositionaswellasthespeciesbeingdosed;thepre-dosedliposomesdonotnecessarilyneedtobethesametypeorcompositionasthetherapeuticordiagnosticliposomesavoidingtheRES.Soonafterthispre-doseisclearedfromthebloodstream(usuallywithinacoupleofhours),theliposomesofinterestaredosed.SincetheRESisinvolvedindigestingthepreviousdoseofliposomes,thesubsequentlydosedliposomeswillremaininthecirculationmuchlongerthusbemuchmorelikelytobindtotheirtargetsiteoutsidetheRESincludingthosephagocyticcellswhichareaccessible,butarenotusuallyexposedtoahigherconcentrationofliposomes.
- WhileRESblockadeisusuallythoughtofassaturatingphagocyticcells,ithasbeenshownthatopsonin-bindingbyliposomesisasaturablephenomenon.Therefore,partofRESblockademayinvolveserumdepletionofcomplementandotheropsoninsknowntocoatliposomes.Inthecurrentapplication,removalorreductionintheconcentrationofsolublemannose-receptorsmayfurtherincreasetheprobABIlityofamannosylatedliposomebeingabletointeractwithmannosereceptorsonthetargetcell.Therefore,ifthegoalistodepleteatargetsubsetofmannose-receptor+cellswhichmaynotnormallybeexposedtoasubstantialnumberofmannosylatedliposomes,pre-dosingwithmannosylatedclodronateliposomes,inordertobothsaturatetheblood,liverandspleenphagocytesandreducetheconcentrationofopsoninsincludingsolublemannosereceptors,shouldincreasethenumberofsubsequentlydosedmannosylatedclodronateliposomesavailabletothistargetsubsethypotheticallyresultinginincreaseduptakeanddepletionbythesetargetedcells.
- TheissuewithfluorescentClodrosome®hastodowiththepotentialforinaccurateand/oruninterpretabledatabeinggeneratedbylabelledClodrosome®.WhenClodrosome®inducesmacrophageapoptosis,thefluorescentlipidincorporatedintotheClodrosome®thatisdisruptedandmetabolizedinthephagolysosomewillbedispersedamongtheresidualapoptoticbodieswhicharesubsequentlyphagocytosedbyothermacrophages.Therefore,fluorescentlipidmaybedetectedinphagocyticcellswhichneverphagocytosedClodrosome®especiallywhenFACSorfluoroscopyareutilizedtodetectfluorescentcells(FACS)orfluorescencelevelsinatissuehomogenate(fluoroscopy).Anotherpotentialartifactarisesfromfluorescentlipidremainingintheextracellular“garbage”,whichhasnotyetbeenclearedbyotherphagocytes,generatingahighbackgroundfluorescence.However,experiencedconfocalmicroscopistmaybeabletodifferentiatebetweenthepunctatefluorescenceresultingfromfluorescentintactliposomesversusthemorediffusefluorescencecharacteristicofdisruptedliposomesandsomehavesuccessfullyusedfluorescentclodronateliposomestovisualizethecellularlocationoftheseliposomesbyconfocalmicroscopyinvivo[2].Afurthercomplicatingfactoristhatpublisheddatavarieswidelyastoexactlywhenclodronateliposomesbegintoinduceapoptosisinmacrophages.Mönkönnnen etal.showthatmacrophagedeathismeasurablewithinthefirsthourafterclodronateliposometreatmentonRAW264cellsinvitro[3],whileothershavereportednosignsofmacrophageapoptosisuntilseveralhoursaftertreatmentinvivo.Thevariabilityinthedataislikelyduetodifferentliposomalformulationsofclodronateaswellasthevastlydifferentexperimentalconditions.Therefore,aswithmostBIOLOGicalstudies,especiallythoseinvolvingliposomes,theamountoftimebetweentreatingtheanimalorcellswithclodronateliposomesandtheonsetofapoptosiswillneedtobeestablishedineachexperimentalmodel.IfthenatureoftheresearchdemandsthatClodrosome®betrackedratherthanthecontrol,EncapsulacanprovideDiI-labelledClodrosome®uponrequest,andassumingthattheClodrosome®distributioncandefinitivelybeassessedpriortotheonsetofapoptosis,clearandvaliddataonthebiodistributionoffluorescentClodrosome®shouldbeobtainable.Still,formostpurposes,Fluoroliposome®(fluorescentcontrolliposomes)willprovidetherequireddatawithfarfewerpotentialartifacts.
- Whenmonitoringmonocyteuptakeinvivoinnormalanimals,thecirculatingmonocytesmay“disappear”orshowreducedcountswithinthefirst2hpost-injectionduetomarginationofthemonocytespost-liposomephagocytosis.Thesecellswillre-enterthecirculationwithinafewhours.Sunderkötter etal.demonstratethisphenomenonanddiscussthebehaviorindetail.Alsoconsiderthatcirculatingmonocyteshavealifetimeofabout24hsolabeledmonocyteswillbecontinuallyleavingthecirculation,eveninnormalanimals,duetoagingofthemonocytes[4].
- WhenanimalsorcellsaretreatedwithClodrosome®,phagocyticcellsrecognizetheliposomesasinvadingforeignparticlesandproceedtoremovetheliposomesfromthelocaltissueorserumviaphagocytosis.Theliposomesthenreleaseclodronateintothecytosolresultingincelldeath.Unencapsulatedclodronatecannotcrossthecellmembranetoinitiatecelldeath.
- Encapsome®controlliposomesarerecognizedandphagocytosedbythesamemechanismasClodrosome®.Sincethecontrolliposomesdonotcontainclodronate,thephagocyticcellsarenotkilled.However,phagocytesdorespondtotheingestionofthecontrolliposomesbycytokinesecretion,temporarysuspensionofphagocyticactivityandotherresponsesdescribedintheliterature.
- Theproductmustberemovedfromthevialusingsteriletechnique.Donotuseifsterilityiscompromised.Thisisparticularlyimportantifasinglevialisaccessedmultipletimesoverseveralweeks.Theproductshouldnotbeusedmorethan60daysafterreceipt,evenifunopened.
- Liposomesmaysettlewhenleftundisturbedformorethanafewhours.Immediatelypriortouse,inordertoensureahomogeneousliposomesuspension,slowlyinvertthevialseveraltimesuntilthesuspensionappearshomogeneousbyvisualinspection.Vigorousorerraticshakingwillnotdamagetheliposomesbutmayinducefoamingandbubbleformationmakingitmoredifficulttoaccuratelymeasurethedesireddosage.
- Ifthepersonnelperformingintravenousinjectionsarenotexperiencedinorfamiliarwith,precautionsforinjectinglargervolumes(~10%animalweightinml),viscousliquidsorparticulatesuspensions,considerhavingextraanimalsavailableincaseseriousinjection-relatedadverseeventsoccur.Dosecontrolanimalsfirsttobecomefamiliarwithlargevolumeinjections.
- WithinhoursaftersystemicadmiNISTrationofClodrosome®,animalsbegintoloseimportantcomponentsoftheirimmunesystem.Standardanimalhandlingandhousingprotocolsarenotsuitableforimmunocompromisedanimals.Evenwhensuchprecautionsaretaken,monitorthegeneralhealthofeachanimalforopportunisticinfectionsunrelatedtotheexperimentalprotocol.Thereisnoinherenttoxicitytotheproductattherecommendeddoselevels.
- Whendosingintravenously,usestandardprecautionsfordosinglargervolumestoanimalsincludingthefollowing:a)warmproducttoroomtemperaturepriortodosing;b)ensurethatallairbubblesareremovedfromthesyringepriortodosing.Intravenousinjectionofairbubblesmayresultinairemboliwhichcankillorseriouslyinjureanimals;c)injectproductataslow,steadyrateofnomorethan1ml/min;d)decreaseinfusionrateifanimalsdisplayanyatypicalreactionssuchasunusualagitation.
- Infusion-relatedadversereactionsusuallyinvolvetheanimalgaspingforairorotherseizure-likemovements.Animalsoftenrecoverwithnoapparentpermanentinjury,butanypotentialeffectsonexperimentalresultsmustbeassessedbytheresearcher.
- Liposomesshouldbekeptat4°CandNEVERbefrozen.
Dosage
Appearance
m-Clodrosome®isawhitemilkysuspension,andm-Fluoroliposome®-DiDisablueliquidsuspension,bothmadeoflargemicrosizemultilamellarliposomes.Duetotheirlargesize,someliposomesmightsettletothebottomofthevial.Ifleftsittingidleintherefrigerator,m-Fluoroliposome®-DiDwillphaseseparateandformpelletsinthebottomofthevial,leavingaclearsolutionontop.m-Clodrosome®mightdothesameonlynotasseverely.Therefore,bothshouldbeshakentoformahomogeneoussolutionpriortouse.
EducationalVideos
Ordering/ShippingInformation
- Allliposomebasedformulationsareshippedonblueiceat4°Cininsulatedpackagesusingovernightshippingorinternationalexpressshipping.
- LiposomesshouldNEVERbefrozen.Icecrystalsthatforminthelipidmembranecanrupturethemembrane,changethesizeoftheliposomesandcausetheencapsulateddrugtoleakout.Liposomesinliquidformshouldalwaysbekeptintherefrigerator.
- ClientswhoorderfromoutsideoftheUnitedStatesofAmericaareresponsiblefortheirgovernmentimporttaxesandcustomspaperwork.EncapsulaNanoSciencesisNOTresponsibleforimportationfeestocountriesoutsideoftheUnitedStatesofAmerica.
- WestronglyencouragetheclientsinJapan,Korea,TaiwanandChinatoorderviaadistributor.Toughcustomsclearanceregulationsinthesecountrieswillcausedelayincustomclearanceoftheseperishableformulationsifordereddirectlythroughus.Distributorscaneasilyclearthepackagesfromcustoms.Toseethelistofthedistributorsclickhere.
- ClientsorderingfromuniversitiesandresearchinstitutesinAustraliashouldkeepinmindthattheliposomeformulationsaremadefromsyntheticmaterialandtheformulationsdonotrequirea“permittoimportquarantinematerial”.LiposomesareNOTbiologicalproducts.
- Ifyouwouldlikeyourinstitute’sFedExorDHLaccounttobechargedforshipping,thenpleaseprovidetheaccountnumberatthetimeofordering.
- EncapsulaNanoScienceshasnocontroloverdelaysduetoinclementweatherorcustomsclearancedelays.YouwillreceiveaFedExorDHLtrackingnumberonceyourorderisconfirmed.ContactFedExorDHLinadvanceandmakesurethatthepaperworkforcustomsisdoneontime. AllsubsequentshippinginquiriesshouldbedirectedtoFederalExpressorDHL.
StorageandShelfLife
Storage
m-Clodrosome®andm-Fluoroliposome®shouldalwaysbestoredatinthedarkat4°C,exceptwhenbroughttoroomtemperatureforbriefperiodspriortoanimaldosing.DONOTFREEZE.Ifthesuspensionisfrozen,clodronatecanbereleasedfromtheliposomesthuslimitingitseffectivenessindepletingmacrophages.ENSisnotresponsibleforresultsgeneratedbyfrozenproduct.
ShelfLife
m-Clodrosome®andFluoroliposome®aremadeondailybasis.Thebatchthatisshippedismanufacturedonthesameday.Itisadvisedtousetheproductswithin60daysofthemanufacturingdate.
Referencesandbackgroundreading
1.UmezawaFA,EtoY.Liposometargetingtomousebrain:mannoseasarecognitionMarker.Biochemicalandbiophysicalresearchcommunications.1988Jun30;153(3):1038-44.
2.PolflietMM,GoedePH,vanKesteren-HendrikxEM,vanRooijenN,DijkstraCD,vandenBergTK.Amethodfortheselectivedepletionofperivascularandmeningealmacrophagesinthecentralnervoussystem.J.Neuroimmunol.2001Jun1;116(2):188–95.
3.MönkkönenJ,LiukkonenJ,TaskinenM,HeathTD,UrttiA.Studiesonliposomeformulationsforintra-articulardeliveryofclodronate.JournalofControlledRelease.1995Aug;35(2–3):145–54.
4.SunderkötterC,NikolicT,DillonMJ,vanRooijenN,StehlingM,DrevetsDA,LeenenP.SubpopulationsofMouseBloodMonocytesDifferinMaturationStageandInflammatoryResponse.JImmunol.2004Apr1;172(7):4410–7.
5.NagaiH,KuwahiraI,SchwenkeDO,TsuchimochiH,NaraA,OguraS,SonobeT,InagakiT,FujiiY,YamaguchiR,WingenfeldL.Pulmonarymacrophagesattenuatehypoxicpulmonaryvasoconstrictionviaβ3AR/iNOSpathwayinratsexposedtochronicintermittenthypoxia.PLoSOne.2015Jul1;10(7):e0131923.
6.ZhuY,SoderblomC,KrishnanV,AshbaughJ,BetheaJR,LeeJK.Hematogenousmacrophagedepletionreducesthefibroticscarandincreasesaxonalgrowthafterspinalcordinjury.Neurobiologyofdisease.2015Feb28;74:114-25.
7.YunMH,DavaapilH,BrockesJP.Recurrentturnoverofsenescentcellsduringregenerationofacomplexstructure.Elife.2015;4:e05505.
8.ArwertEN,HarneyAS,EntenbergD,WangY,SahaiE,PollardJW,CondeelisJS.AUnidirectionalTransitionfromMigratorytoPerivascularMacrophageIsRequiredforTumorCellIntravasation.Cellreports.2018May1;23(5):1239-48.
9.ItoT,IshigamiM,MatsushitaY,HirataM,MatsubaraK,IshikawaT,HibiH,UedaM,HirookaY,GotoH,YamamotoA.SecretedEctodomainofSIGLEC-9andMCP-1SynergisticallyImproveAcuteLiverFailureinRatsbyAlteringMacrophagePolarity.Scientificreports.2017Mar8;7:44043.
10.MironVE,BoydA,ZhaoJW,YuenTJ,RuckhJM,ShadrachJL,vanWijngaardenP,WagersAJ,WilliamsA,FranklinRJ.M2microgliaandmacrophagesdriveoligodendrocytedifferentiationduringCNSremyelination.Natureneuroscience.2013Sep;16(9):1211.
11.AndreouK,SarmientoSotoM,AllenD,EconomopoulosV,deBernardiA,LarkinJ,SibsonNR.Anti-InflammatoryMicroglia/MacrophagesasaPotentialTherapeuticTargetinBrainMetastasis.Frontiersinoncology.2017;7:251.
12.AlishekevitzD,Gingis-VelitskiS,Kaidar-PersonO,Gutter-KaponL,SchererSD,RavivZ,MerquiolE,Ben-NunY,MillerV,Rachman-TzemahC,TimanerM.Macrophage-inducedlymphangiogenesisandmetastasisfollowingpaclitaxelchemotherapyisregulatedbyVEGFR3.Cellreports.2016Oct25;17(5):1344-56.
13.OhSH,KimHN,ParkHJ,ShinJY,BaeEJ,SunwooMK,LeeSJ,LeePH.Mesenchymalstemcellsinhibittransmissionofα-synucleinbymodulatingclathrin-mediatedendocytosisinaParkinsonianmodel.Cellreports.2016Feb2;14(4):835-49.
14.KanoF,MatsubaraK,UedaM,HibiH,YamamotoA.SecretedEctodomainofSialicAcid‐BindingIg‐LikeLectin‐9andMonocyteChemoattractantProtein‐1SynergisticallyRegenerateTransectedRatPeripheralNervesbyAlteringMacrophagePolarity.STEMCELLS.2017Mar1;35(3):641-53.
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1、 配制JC-1染色工作液：
取适量JC-1 Stain (200×)，按照每50μl JC-1 Stain (200×)加入8ml ddH2O的比例稀释JC-1，剧烈Vortex充分溶解并混匀JC-1。然后再加入2ml JC-1 Buffer(5×)，混匀后即为JC-1染色工作液。6孔板每孔所需JC-1染色工作液的量为1ml，其它培养器皿的JC-1染色工作液的用量以此类推。
2、 设置阳性对照：
推荐CCCP(10mM)加入到细胞培养液中处理细胞。随后按照下述方法装载JC-1，进行线粒体膜电位的检测。对于特定的细胞，CCCP的作用浓度和作用时间可能有所不同，需自行参考相关文献资料确定。
3、对于悬浮细胞：
a. 取1～6×105细胞，重悬于0.5ml细胞培养液中，细胞培养液中可以含血清和酚红。
b. 加入0.5ml JC-1染色工作液，颠倒数次混匀。细胞培养箱中37℃孵育。
c. 在孵育期间，按照每1ml JC-1 Buffer(5×)加入4ml蒸馏水的比例，配制适量的JC-1 Buffer(1×)，并放置于冰浴。
d. 37℃孵育结束后， 4℃ 600g离心3～4min，沉淀细胞。弃上清，注意尽量不要吸除细胞。
f. 再用JC-1 Buffer(1×)重悬后，用荧光显微镜或激光共聚焦显微镜观察，也可以用荧光分光光度计检测或流式细胞仪分析。
4、对于贴壁细胞：
注意：对于贴壁细胞，如果希望采用荧光分光光度计或流式细胞仪检测，应先收集细胞，重悬后参考悬浮细胞的检测方法。
a.吸除6孔板培养液，根据具体实验如有必要可以用PBS或其它适当溶液洗涤细胞一次，加入1ml细胞培养液。细胞培养液中可以含有血清和酚红。
b. 加入1ml JC-1染色工作液，充分混匀。细胞培养箱中37℃孵育。
c. 在孵育期间，按照每1ml JC-1 Buffer(5×)加入蒸馏水的比例，配制适量的JC-1 Buffer(1×)，并放置于冰浴。
d. 37℃孵育结束后， 吸除上清，用JC-1 Buffer(1×)洗涤2次。
e. 加入2ml细胞培养液，培养液中可以含有血清和酚红。
f. 荧光显微镜或激光共聚焦显微镜下观察。
5、对于纯化的线粒体：
a. 把配制好的JC-1染色工作液再用JC-1 Buffer(1×)稀释5倍。
b. 0.9ml 5倍稀释的JC-1染色工作液中加入0.1ml总蛋白量为10～100μg纯化的线粒体。
c. 用荧光分光光度计或荧光酶标仪检测：混匀后直接用荧光分光光度计进行时间扫描，激发波长为485nm，发射波长为590nm。如果使用荧光酶标仪，激发波长不能设置为485nm时，可以在475～520nm范围内设置激发波长。另外，也可以参考下面步骤6中的波长设置进行荧光检测。
d. 用荧光显微镜或激光共聚焦显微镜观察：方法同下面的步骤6。
6、荧光观测和结果分析：
检测JC-1单体时可以把激发光设置为490nm，发射光设置为530nm；检测JC-1聚合物时，可以把激发光设置为525nm，发射光设置为590nm。出现红色荧光说明线粒体膜电位比较正常，细胞的状态也比较正常。
注意事项：
1、 JC-1 Stain(200×)应完全溶解混匀后使用，但应避免反复冻融。必须先把JC-1 Stain(200×)用ddH2O充分溶解混匀后，才可加入JC-1 Buffer(1×)。不可先配制JC-1 Buffer(1×)再加入JC-1 Stain(200×)，否则导致JC-1很难充分溶解，严重影响后续的检测。
2、 对于6孔板中的样品，本试剂盒共可以检测100个样品；对于12孔中的样品，本试剂盒共可以检测200个样品。
3、 装载完JC-1后用JC-1 Buffer(1×)洗涤时，尽量使JC-1 Buffer(1×)保持4℃左右，此时的洗涤效果较好。
4、 勿把JC-1 Buffer(5×)全部配制成1×，因为操作过程中需直接使用JC-1 Buffer(5×)。
5、 如JC-1 Buffer(5×)中有沉淀，必须全部溶解后才能使用，为促进溶解可以在37℃加热。
6、 CCCP为线粒体电子传递链抑制剂，有一定毒性，请注意小心防护。
实验室要开展支原体检测，方法是PCR法，先要采购试剂盒，用过的同学给推荐一下好用的品牌呗
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牛胰岛素,是一种多肽
在1965年9月17日我国完成了结晶牛胰岛素的全合成。经过严格鉴定，它的结构、生物活力、物理化学性质、结晶形状都和天然的牛胰岛素完全一样。这是世界上第一个人工合成的蛋白质，为人类认识生命、揭开生命奥秘迈出了可喜的一大步。这项成果获1982年中国自然科学一等奖。
1953年，英国人F. SangerSanger由于测定了牛胰岛素的一级结构而获得1958年诺贝尔化学奖。
